Ladakh - info on Ladakh, India

Jammu and Kashmir • India
Coordinates: 34°08′N 77°33′E / 34.14, 77.55
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area 45,110 km² (17,417 sq mi)[β]
Largest city Leh
Population
• Density 270,126 (2001)
• 6/km² (16/sq mi)[1]
Language(s) Ladakhi, Urdu
Infant mortality rate 19%[2] (1981)
Website: leh.nic.in

Ladakh (Tibetan script: ལ་དྭགས་; Wylie: la-dwags, Ladakhi IPA: [lad̪ɑks], Hindi: लद्दाख़, Hindi IPA: [ləd̪.d̪ɑːx], Urdu: لدّاخ; "land of high passes") is a province in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir sandwiched between the Kunlun mountain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas to the south, inhabited by people of Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent. It is one of the most sparsely populated regions in Kashmir. Historically, the region included the Baltistan (Baltiyul) valleys, the Indus Valley, the remote Zanskar, Lahaul and Spiti to the south, Ngari including the Rudok region and Guge in the east, and Nubra valleys to the north over Khardung La in the Ladakh mountain range. Contemporary Ladakh borders Tibet to the east, the Lahaul and Spiti to the south, the Vale of Kashmir, Jammu and Baltiyul regions to the west, and the Trans -Kun lun territory of East Turkistan in Central Asia on the other side of the Kun lun range in Kashmir to the north. Running southwest to northeast, the Altyn Tagh converges with the Kun Lun range in Kashmir which runs southeast to northwest forming a "V" shape which converges at Pulu. The geographical divide between Ladakh in the highlands of Kashmir and the Tibetan Plateau commences in the vicinity of Pulu and continues southwards along the intricate maze of ridges situate east of Rudok, wherein are situate Aling Kangri and Mavang Kangri and culminates in the vicinity of Mayum La .

Ladakh is renowned for its remote mountain beauty and Buddhist culture. It is sometimes called "Little Tibet" as it has been strongly influenced by Tibetan culture. In the past Ladakh gained importance from its strategic location at the crossroads of important trade routes,[3] but since the Chinese authorities closed the borders with Tibet and Central Asia in the 1960, international trade has dwindled. Since 1974 the Indian Government has encouraged tourism in Ladakh.

The largest town in Ladakh is Leh. A majority of Ladakhis are Tibetan Buddhists and the majority of the remainder are Shia Muslims.[4] Ladakhis have in recent times called for Ladakh to be constituted as a union territory because of its religious and cultural differences with predominantly Muslim Kashmir.[5][6]

History

Rock carvings have been found in many parts of Ladakh, showing that the area has been inhabited from the Neolithic times.[6] Ladakh's earliest inhabitants consisted of a mixed Indo-Aryan population of Mons and Dards,[7] who find mention in the works of Herodotus, [γ] Nearchus, Megasthenes, Pliny,[δ] Ptolemy,[ε] and the geographical lists of the Puranas.[8] Around the 1st century, Ladakh was a part of the Kushana empire. Buddhism came to western Ladakh via Kashmir in the 2nd century when much of eastern Ladakh and western Tibet was still practising the Bon religion. The 7th century Buddhist traveler Xuanzang also describes the region in his accounts.[στ]

In the 8th century, Ladakh was involved in the clash between Tibetan expansion pressing from the East and Chinese influence exerted from Central Asia through the passes, and suzerainty over Ladakh frequently changed hands between China and Tibet. In 842 Nyima-Gon, a Tibetan royal representative annexed Ladakh for himself after the break-up of the Tibetan empire, and founded a separate Ladakh dynasty. During this period Ladakh underwent Tibetanization resulting in a predominantly Tibetan population. The dynasty spearheaded the "Second Spreading of Buddhism" importing religious ideas from north-west India, particularly from Kashmir.[ζ]

Faced with the Islamic conquest of South Asia in the 13th century, Ladakh chose to seek and accept guidance in religious matters from Tibet. For nearly two centuries, till about 1600, Ladakh was subject to raids and invasions from neighbouring Muslim states, which led to weakening and fracturing of Ladakh, and partial conversion of Ladakhis to Islam.[4][8][6]

King Bhagan reunited and strengthened Ladakh and founded the Namgyal dynasty [η] which survives even today. The Namgyals repelled most Central Asian raiders and temporarily extended the kingdom as far as Nepal,[6] in the face of concerted attempts to convert the region to Islam and destroy Buddhist artifacts.[6][4] In the early 17th century efforts were made to restore destroyed artifacts and gompas, and the kingdom expanded into Zanskar and Spiti. Ladakh was, however defeated by the Mughals, who had already annexed Kashmir and Baltistan, but it retained its independence.

In the late 17th century, Ladakh sided with Bhutan in its dispute with Tibet, which resulted in an invasion by Tibet. Kashmiri help restored Ladakhi rule on the condition of that a mosque be built in Leh and that the Ladakhi king convert to Islam. The Treaty of Temisgam in 1684 settled the dispute between Tibet and Ladakh, but its independence was severely restricted. In 1834, the Dogras under Zorawar Singh, a general of Ranjit Singh invaded and annexed Ladakh. A Ladakhi rebellion in 1842 was crushed and Ladakh was incorporated into the Dogra state of Jammu and Kashmir. The Namgyal family was given the jagir of Stok, which it nominally retains to this day. Starting from the 1850s, European influence increased in Ladakh — geologists, sportsmen and tourists started exploring Ladakh. In 1885, Leh became the headquarters of a mission of the Moravian Church.

At the time of the partition of India in 1947, the Dogra ruler Maharaja Hari Singh was undecided whether to accede to the Indian Union or to Pakistan. In 1948, Pakistani raiders invaded the region and occupied Kargil and Zanskar, reaching within 30 km (19 miles) of Leh.[6] The Indian government sent troops into the princely state after the ruler signed the Instrument of Accession making the state a part of the Union of India. In 1949, China closed the border between Nubra and Xinjiang, blocking old trade routes. The Chinese invasion of Tibet in 1950 led to a large influx of Tibetan refugees to the region. In 1962 China invaded and occupied Aksai Chin, and promptly built roads connecting Xinjiang and Tibet through it. It also built the Karakoram highway jointly with Pakistan. India built the Srinagar-Leh highway during this period, cutting the journey time between Srinagar to Leh from 16 days to two.[6] The entire state of Jammu and Kashmir continues to be the subject of a territorial dispute between India on the one hand and Pakistan and China on the other. Kargil was a scene of fighting in the wars of 1947, 1965, 1971 and the focal point of a potential nuclear conflict during the Kargil War in 1999. The region was bifurcated into Kargil and Leh districts in 1979. In 1989, there were violent riots between Buddhists and Muslims. Following demands for autonomy from the Kashmiri dominated state government, the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council was created in 1993.

Geography

Ladakh is India’s highest plateau with much of it being over 3,000 m (9,800 ft).[4] It spans the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges and the upper Indus River valley. Historical Ladakh includes the fairly populous main Indus valley, the more remote Zangskar (in the south) and Nubra valleys (to the north over Khardung La), the almost deserted Aksai Chin, and Kargil and Suru Valley areas to the west (Kargil being the second most important town in Ladakh). Before partition, Baltistan (now under Pakistani administration) was a district in Ladakh. Skardu was the winter capital of Ladakh while Leh was the summer capital.

The mountain ranges in this region were formed over a period of 45 million years by the folding of the Indian plate into the more stationary Eurasian Plate. The drift continues, causing frequent earthquakes in the Himalayan region.[θ][9] The peaks in the Ladakh range are at a medium altitude close to the Zoji-la (5,000–5,500 m or 16,000–18,050 ft), and increase towards south-east, reaching a climax in the twin summits of Nun-Kun (7000 m or 23,000 ft).

The Suru and Zangskar valleys form a great trough enclosed by the Himalayas and the Zanskar range. Rangdum is the highest inhabited region in the Suru valley, after which the valley rises to 4,400 m (14,436 ft) at Pensi-la, the gateway to Zanskar. Kargil, the only town in the Suru valley, was an important staging post on the routes of the trade caravans before 1947, being more or less equidistant, at about 230 kilometres from Srinagar, Leh, Skardu, and Padum. The Zangskar valley lies in the troughs of the Stod and the Lungnak rivers. The region experiences heavy snowfall; the Pensi-la is open only between June and mid-October. The Indus river is the backbone of Ladakh. All major historical and current towns — Shey, Leh, Basgo, and Tingmosgang, are situated close to the river.

The Ladakh range has no major peaks; its average height is a little less than 6,000 m (19,700 ft), and few of its passes are less than 5,000 m (16,400 ft). The Pangong range runs parallel to the Ladakh range about 100 km northwest from Chushul, along the southern shore of the Pangong Lake. Its highest range is 6,700 m (22,000 ft), and the northern slopes are heavily glaciated. The region comprising the valley of Shayok and Nubra rivers is known as Nubra. The Karakoram range in Ladakh is not as mighty as in Baltistan.[ι] North of the Karakoram lies the Kunlun. Thus, between Leh and eastern Central Asia, there is a triple barrier — Ladakh range, Karakoram range, and Kunlun. Nevertheless, a major trade route was established between Leh and Yarkand.

Ladakh is a high altitude desert as the Himalayas create a rain shadow, denying entry to monsoon clouds. The main source of water is the winter snowfall on the mountains. Recent flooding of the Indus river in the region has been attributed either to abnormal rain patterns, or the retreating of glaciers, both of which might be linked to global warming.[10] The Leh Nutrition Project, headed by Chewang Norphel, also known as the 'Glacier Man', currently creates artificial glaciers as one solution for this problem.[1][2]

The regions on the north flank of the Himalayas — Dras, the Suru valley and Zanskar — experience heavy snowfall and remain virtually cut off from the rest of the country for several months in the year. Summers are short, though they are long enough to grow crops in the lower reaches of the Suru valley. The summer weather is dry and pleasant, with average temperatures between 10–20 °C (50–70 °F), while in winter, the temperature may dip to −15 °C (5 °F). The proportion of oxygen is less than in many other places at comparable altitudes because of lack of vegetation. There is little moisture to temper the effects of rarefied air. Ladakh lies in the Very High Damage Risk cyclone zone.[11]

Flora and fauna

The wildlife of this region was first studied by Ferdinand Stoliczka, an Austrian/Czech palaeontologist, who carried out a massive expedition in the region in the 1870s. Vegetation is extremely sparse in Ladakh except along streambeds and wetlands, where several wild herbs and shrubs can be seen. Some vegetation is also found on high slopes that receive more snow, and in irrigated places.[12]

The fauna of Ladakh have much in common with that of Central Asia in general and that of the Tibetan Plateau in particular. Exceptions to this are the birds, many of which migrate from the warmer parts of India to spend the summer in Ladakh. For such an arid area, Ladakh has a great diversity of birds — a total of 225 species have been recorded. Many species of finches, robins, redstarts (like the Black Redstart) and the Hoopoe are common in summer. The Brown-headed Gull is seen in summer on the river Indus and on some lakes of the Changthang. Resident water-birds include the Brahminy duck also known as the Ruddy Sheldrake and the Bar-headed Goose. The Black-necked Crane (Ladakhi: Thung Thung), a rare species found scattered in the Tibetan plateau is also found in parts of Ladakh. Other birds include the Raven, Red-billed Chough, Tibetan Snowcock and Chukar. The Lammergeier and the Golden Eagle are common raptors here.

The endangered Ibex, found in high craggy terrain, numbers several thousand in Ladakh. The Bharal, or blue sheep, is common in the Himalayas, ranging from Ladakh to as far as Sikkim. The Shapu is a rare goat that numbers about a thousand. Found at lower elevations, mostly in river valleys, it competes with domesticated animals. The Argali, or Nayan, is a relative of the Marco Polo sheep of the Pamirs with huge horizontal curving horns. They number only a couple hundred in Ladakh. The Chiru, or Tibetan antelope, (Ladakhi: Tsos) is an endangered[ια] animal that has traditionally been hunted for its wool [ιβ] known as shahtoosh, valued for its light weight and warmth and as a status symbol. The Kyang, or Tibetan Wild Ass, is common in the grasslands of Changthang, numbering about 1,500 individuals. There are about 200 Snow Leopards (Ladakhi: Shan) in Ladakh, especially in the Hemis High Altitude National Park. Other cats in Ladakh are even rarer than the snow leopard, the Lynx, numbering only a few individuals, and the Pallas's cat, which looks like a house cat. The Tibetan Wolf which preys on the livestock of the Ladakhis, is the most persecuted, reduced to just about 300. There are also a few brown bears in the Suru valley and the area around Dras. The Tibetan Sand Fox has recently been discovered in this region. Among smaller animals, Marmots, voles, hares, and several types of Pika are common.

Government and politics

Ladakh comprises two districts of Jammu and Kashmir: Leh and Kargil. They are each governed by a Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, which are based on the pattern of the Darjeeling Gorkha Autonomous Hill Council. These were created as a compromise solution to the demands of Ladakhi people to make Leh district a union territory because of its religious and cultural differences with Kashmir. In October 1993, the Indian government and the State government agreed to grant each district of Ladakh the status of Autonomous Hill Council. This agreement was given effect by the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council Act, 1995. The council came into being with the holding of elections in Leh District on August 28, 1995. The inaugural meeting of the council was held at Leh on September 3, 1995. Kargil followed Ladakh's footsteps in July 2003, when the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council - Kargil was established.[13] The council works with village panchayats to take decisions on economic development, healthcare, education, land use, taxation, and local governance which are further reviewed at the Block Headquarters in the presence of the Chief Executive Councilor and Executive Councilors.[14] The government of Jammu and Kashmir looks after law and order, judicial system, communications and the higher education in the region. Ladakh sends one member (MP) to the Lok Sabha (lower house of the Indian parliament). The current MP from Ladakh in the current Lok Sabha is Thupstan Chhewang of the Ladakh Union Territory Front (LUTF).

Although on the whole there has been religious harmony in Ladakh, religion has tended to get politicized in the last few decades. As early as 1931, Kashmiri neo-Buddhists founded the Kashmir Raj Bodhi Mahasabha that led to some sense of separateness from the Muslims. The bifurcation of the region into Muslim majority Kargil district and Buddhist majority Leh district in 1979 again brought the communal question into fore. The Buddhists in Ladakh accused the overwhelmingly Muslim state government of continued apathy, corruption and a bias in favour of Muslims. On these grounds, they demanded union territory status for Ladakh. In 1989, there were violent riots between Buddhists and Muslims, provoking the Ladakh Buddhist Association to call for a social and economic boycott of Muslims which went on for three years before being lifted in 1992. The Ladakh Union Territory Front (LUTF), which controls the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council - Leh, demands union territory status for Ladakh.

Economy

For centuries, Ladakh enjoyed a stable and self-reliant agricultural economy based on growing barley, wheat and peas, and keeping livestock, especially yak, dzos (yak-cow cross breed), cows, sheep and goats. At altitudes of 3,000 to 4,300 m (10,000 and 14,000 ft), the growing season is only a few months long every year. Animals are scarce and water is in short supply. The Ladakhis developed a small-scale farming system adapted to this unique environment. The land is irrigated by a system of channels which funnel water from the melted ice and snow of the mountains. The principal crop is barley. Rice had previously been a luxury in the Ladakhi diet, but has now become cheap and staple.[15]

At lower elevations fruit is grown, while the high altitude Rupshu region is the preserve of nomadic herders. Surplus produce is traded for tea, sugar, salt and other items. Two items for export are apricots and pashmina. Grim, or naked barley is the staple crop all over Ladakh. It is sowed in May and reaped in mid-July. Growing times vary considerably with altitude. The extreme limit of cultivation is at Karzok, on the Tso-moriri lake, at 4,600 m (15,100 ft), which are widely considered to be the highest fields in the world.[4]

In the past Ladakh's geographical position at the crossroads of some of the most important trade routes in Asia was exploited to the full. Ladakhis collected tax on goods that crossed their kingdom from Turkistan, Tibet, Punjab, Kashmir and Baltistan. A minority of Ladakhi people were also employed as merchants and caravan traders, facilitating trade in textiles, carpets, dyestuffs and narcotics between Punjab and Xinjiang. However, since the Chinese Government closed the borders with Tibet and Central Asia, this international trade has completely dried up.[6][16]

Since 1974, the Indian Government has encouraged a shift in trekking and other tourist activities from the troubled Kashmir region to the relatively unaffected areas of Ladakh. Although tourism employs only 4% of Ladakh's working population, it now accounts for 50% of the region's GNP.[6] Large-scale infrastructure projects — including, crucially, road links — have helped consolidate the new economy and create an urban alternative to farming. The combination of subsidised food and the new infrastructure has accelerated a mass migration of men folk from the farms into Leh to serve the tourism industry.

Adventure tourism in Ladakh started in the 19th century. By the turn of the 20th century, it was not uncommon for British officials to undertake the 14-stage trek from Srinagar to Leh as part of their annual leave. Agencies were set up in Srinagar and Shimla specialising in sports-related activities — hunting, fishing and trekking. This era is recorded in Arthur Neves The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh and Skardo, first published in 1911.[16] Today, about 18,000 tourists visit Ladakh every year. Among the popular places of tourist interest include Leh, Drass valley, Suru valley, Kargil, Zanskar, Zangla, Rangdum, Padum, Phugthal, Sani, Stongdey, Shyok Valley, Sankoo, Salt Valley and several popular trek routes like Manali to Ladakh, the Nubra valley, the Indus valley etc.[17]

Transport

Ladakh was the connection point between Central Asia and South Asia when the Silk Road was in use. The sixty-day journey on the Ladakh route connecting Amritsar and Yarkand through eleven passes was frequently undertaken by traders till the third quarter of the 19th century.[3] Another common route in regular use was the Kalimpong route between Leh and Lhasa via Gartok, the administrative centre of western Tibet. Gartok could be reached either straight up the Indus in winter, or through either the Taglang la or the Chang la. Beyond Gartok, the Cherko la brought travelers to the Manasarovar and Rakshastal lakes, and then to Barka, which is connected to the main Lhasa road. These traditional routes have been closed since the Ladakh-Tibet border has been sealed by the Chinese government. Other less used routes connected Ladakh to Hunza and Chitral.

In present times, the only two land routes to Ladakh in use are from Srinagar and Manali. Travelers from Srinagar start their journey from Sonamarg, through the Zoji la pass (3,450 m, 11,320 ft) via Dras and Kargil (2,750 m, 9,022 ft) passing through Namika la (3,700 m, 12,140 ft) and Fatu la (4,100 m, 13,450 ft.) This has been the main traditional gateway to Ladakh since historical times. However, with the rise of militancy in Kashmir, the main corridor for accessing the area has shifted from the Srinagar-Kargil-Leh route through Zoji la to the high altitude Manali-Leh Highway from Himachal Pradesh. The highway crosses four passes, Rohtang la (3,978 m, 13,050 ft), Baralacha la (4,892 m, 16,050 ft), Lungalacha la (5,059 m, 16,600 ft) and Tanglang la (5,325 m, 17,470 ft), and is open only between July and mid-October when snow is cleared from the road. There is one airport in Leh, from which there are multiple daily flights to Delhi on Jet Airways and Indian, and weekly flights to Srinagar and Jammu.

Buses run from Leh to the surrounding villages. There is about 1,800 km (1,100 mi) of roads in Ladakh of which 800 km (500 mi) is surfaced.[18] The Manali-Leh-Srinagar road makes up about half of the road network, the remainder being spurs off it. Ladakh is criss-crossed by a complex network of mountain trails which, even today provides the only link to most of the valleys, villages and high pastures. For the traveler with a number of months it is possible to trek from one end of Ladakh to the other, or even from places in Himachal Pradesh. The large number of trails and the limited number of roads allows one to string together routes that have road access often enough to restock supplies, but avoid walking on motor roads almost entirely.

Demographics

Ladakh has a population of about 260,000 which is a blend of many different races, predominantly the Tibetans, Mons and the Dards. People of pure Dard descent predominate in Dras and Dha-Hanu valleys. The residents of Dha-Hanu, known as Brokpa, are followers of Tibetan Buddhism and have preserved much of their original Dardic traditions and customs. The Dards around Dras, however, have converted to Islam and have been strongly influenced by their Kashmiri neighbours. The Mons are descendants of earlier Indian settlers in Ladakh. They work as musicians, blacksmiths and carpenters.

Unlike the rest of Jammu and Kashmir which is mainly Islamic, most of Ladakhis are Tibetan Buddhist (who mostly live in Ladakh), with most of the rest being Shia Muslims (mainly around Kargil and the lower Suru Valley). There are some Sunni Muslims of Kashmiri descent around Leh and also Padum in Zanskar). There are also small numbers of followers of the Bon religion, Hinduism, Sikhism and Christianity. Most Buddhists follow the tantric form of Buddhism known as Vajrayana Buddhism. Shias are mostly found among the Balti and Purig people. The people are of Tibetan descent with some Dardic and Mon admixture; the Balti and Purigs are believed to have more Dardic ancestry than the Ladakhis. The Changpa nomads who live in the Rupshu plateau are pure Tibetans, and it was probably herders like them who first settled in Ladakh and Baltistan. Since the early 1960s their numbers have increased as Chang Tang nomads from across the border flee Chinese-ruled Tibet. There are about 3,500 refugees in Leh alone. Muslim Arghons, descendants of Kashmiri or Central Asian merchants and Ladakhi women mainly live in Leh. The appearance and lifestyle of both central & Eastern Ladakhis and Zanskaris reflect a strong influence from Central Tibet, which diminishes westwards, being replaced by that of Dards. The Baltis of Kargil, Nubra, Suru Valley, and Baltistan, however, show strong Tibetan links in their appearance, and language and were Bonpa and Buddhists until recent times.

The principal language of Ladakh is Ladakhi, a Tibetan dialect that is different enough from Tibetan that Ladakhis and Tibetans often speak Hindi or English when they need to communicate. Urban Ladakhis usually know Hindi/Urdu and often English. Within Ladakh, there is a range of dialects, so that the language of the Chang-pa people may differ markedly from that of the Purig-pa in Kargil, or the Zanskaris, but they are all mutually comprehensible. Due to its position on important trade routes, the racial composition as well as the language of Leh is enriched with foreign influences. Traditionally, Ladakhi has had no written form distinct from classical Tibetan, but recently a number of Ladakhi scholars have started using the Tibetan script to write the colloquial tongue. Administrative work is carried out in Urdu and, increasingly, English.

The Total Birth Rate in 2001 was 22.44, while it was 21.44 for Muslims and 24.46 for Buddhists. Brokpas had the highest TBR at 27.17 and Arghuns had the lowest at 14.25. TFR was 2.69 with 1.3 in Leh and 3.4 in Kargil. For Buddhists it was 2.79 and for Muslims it was 2.66. Baltis had a TFR of 3.12 and Arghuns had a TFR of 1.66. The Total Death Rate was 15.69, with Muslims having 16.37 and Budhists having 14.32. Highest was for Brokpas at 21.74 and lowest was for Bodhs at 14.32. [3]
Year [ιγ] Leh District (Population) Leh District (Sex ratio[ιδ]) Kargil District (Population) Kargil District (Sex ratio)
1951 40,484 (-) 1011 41,856 (-) 970
1961 43,587 (0.74) 1010 45,064 (0.74) 935
1971 51,891 (1.76) 1002 53,400 (1.71) 949
1981 68,380 (2.80) 886 65,992 (2.14) 853
2001 117,637 (2.75) 805 115,287 (2.83) 901

The sex ratio for Leh district has declined from 1011 in 1951 to 805 in 2001, while for Kargil district, it has declined from 970 to 901.[18] The urban sex ratio in both the districts is about 640. About 84% of Ladakh's population lives in villages.[19] The average annual population growth rate from 1981–2001 was 2.75% in Leh District and 2.83% in Kargil district.[18]

Culture

Ladakhi culture is similar to Tibetan culture. Ladakhi food has much in common with Tibetan food, the most prominent foods being thukpa, noodle soup; and tsampa, known in Ladakhi as ngampe, roasted barley flour. Eatable without cooking, tsampa makes useful, if dull trekking food. A dish that is strictly Ladakhi is skyu, a heavy pasta dish with root vegetables. As Ladakh moves toward a less sustainable cash-based economy, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common. Like in other parts of Central Asia, tea in Ladakh is traditionally made with strong green tea, butter, and salt; it is mixed in a large churn and known as gurgur cha, after the sound it makes when mixed. Sweet tea (cha ngarmo) is common now, made in the Indian style with milk and sugar. Most surplus barley produced is fermented into chang, an alcoholic beverage drunk especially on festive occasions.[20]

The architecture of Ladakh contains Tibetan and Indian influences, and monastic architecture reflects a deeply Buddhist approach. The Buddhist wheel, along with two dragons, is a common feature on every Gompa (including the likes of Lamayuru, Likir, Tikse, Hemis, Alchi and Ridzong gompas). Many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth.

The music of Ladakhi Buddhist monastic festivals, like Tibetan music, often involves religious chanting in Tibetan or Sanskrit, as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of sacred texts or in celebration of various festivals. Yang chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant drums and low, sustained syllables. Religious mask dances are an important part of Ladakh's cultural life. The Hemis monastery, a leading centre of Drukpa Buddhism, is a centre for an annual masked dance festival. The dances typically narrate a story of fight between good and evil, ending with the eventual victory of the former.[21] Weaving is an important part of traditional life in eastern Ladakh. Both women and men weave, on different looms.[22] Typical costumes include Gonchas of velvet, elaborately embroidered waistcoats and boots, and hats. The Ladakh festival is held every year in September. Performers, adorned with gold and silver ornaments and turquoise headgears throng the streets. Monks wear colourful masks and dance to the rhythm of cymbals, flutes and trumpets. The Yak, Lion and Tashispa dances depict the many legends and fables of Ladakh. Buddhist monasteries sporting prayer flags, display of 'thankas', archery competitions, a mock marriage, and horse-polo are the some highlights of this festival.[23]

Archery is a popular sport in Ladakh. Archery festivals are held during the summer months in villages. These are competitive events, to which all the surrounding villages send their teams. The sport is conducted with strict etiquette, to the accompaniment of the music of surna and daman (oboe and drum). Polo, the other traditional sport of Ladakh is indigenous to Baltistan and Gilgit, and was probably introduced into Ladakh in the mid-17th century by King Singge Namgyal, whose mother was a Balti princess.[24]

A feature of Ladakhi society that distinguishes it from the rest of the state is the high status and relative emancipation enjoyed by women compared to other rural parts of India. Fraternal polyandry and inheritance by primogeniture were actively practiced in Ladakh until the early 1940s when these were made illegal by the then government of Jammu and Kashmir, although they still exist in some areas. Another custom was known as khang-bu, or 'little house', in which the elders of a family, as soon as the eldest son has sufficiently matured, retire from participation in affairs, and taking only enough of the property for their own sustenance, yielding the headship of the family to him.[4]

A caste system exists in Buddhist Ladakh, wherein three groups, the Mons who play traditional music, the Garas who are blacksmiths, and the Bedas, who also play traditional music and are believed to have come in recent generations from Spiti area, are considered low caste by the middle (farmer) caste and the upper caste (former nobility). They were probably originally distinct ethnic groups from the majority of Ladakhis. Untouchability is still practiced against them, especially in the matter of eating and drinking utensils, choice of marriage partners, and seating order at public events. Such discrimination leads many low caste Buddhist girls to marry Muslim men in Kargil, where they can escape the caste system. The former nobility "skutraks" caste practicies untouchabilty against the middle and lower castes in eating, seating order, and marriage, but no longer commands any partcular respect, power, or economic clout. Claiming to be concerned about the relative loss of population to conversions, the Ladakh Buddhist Association (LBA) often takes out protests and forces the entire Leh Bazaar to close down when a Buddhist girl (of the middle or higher castes) marries a Muslim man. However, the LBA has never been seen to protest when a low caste girl marries a Muslim and converts.

Education

Traditionally there was little or nothing by way of formal education except in the gompas. Usually, one son from every family was obliged to master the Tibetan script in order to read the holy books.[4] The first school providing western education was opened by the Moravian Mission in Leh in October 1889, and the Wazir-i Wazarat[ιε] of Baltistan and Ladakh ordered that every family with more than one child should send one of them to school. This order met with great resistance from the local people who feared that the children would be forced to convert to Christianity. The school taught Tibetan, Urdu, English, Geography, Sciences, Nature study, Arithmetic, Geometry and Bible study.[7]

According to the 2001 census, the overall literacy rate in the Leh District is 62% (72% for males and 50% for females), while it is 58% in Kargil district (74% for males and 41% for females).[25] Schools are well distributed throughout Ladakh, but 75% of them provide only primary education. 65% of the children attend school, but absenteeism of both students and teachers remains high. In both districts the failure rate at school-leaving level (class X) had for many years been around 85–95%, while of those managing to scrape through, barely half succeeded in qualifying for college entrance (class XII.) Before 1993, students were taught in Urdu till they were 14, after which the medium of instruction shifted to English. In 1993 the Students' Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL) launched 'Operation New Hope' (ONH), a campaign to provide 'culturally appropriate and locally relevant education' and make government schools more functional and effective. By 2001, ONH principles were being implemented in all the government schools of Leh District, and the matriculation exam pass rate had risen to 50%. A government degree college has been opened in Leh, enabling students to pursue higher education without having to leave Ladakh.[26] The Druk White Lotus School, located in Shey is aimed at helping to maintain the rich cultural traditions of Ladakh, while equipping the children for a life in the 21st century.

Notes

α. ^ The area under Indian administration is shown in dark pink, while additional areas claimed by the Indian government, which were parts of the historical Ladakh kingdom, are shown in pink.

β. ^ This excludes Aksai Chin (37555 km²), under Chinese administration.

γ. ^ He mentions twice a people called Dadikai, first along with the Gandarioi, and again in the catalogue of king Xerxes's army invading Greece. Herodotus also mentions the gold-digging ants of Central Asia.

δ. ^ In the 1st century, Pliny repeats that the Dards were great producers of gold.

ε. ^ Ptolemy situates the Daradrai on the upper reaches of the Indus

στ. ^ See Petech, Luciano. The Kingdom of Ladakh c. 950–1842 A.D., Istituto Italiano per il media ed Estremo Oriente, 1977. Hsuan-tsang describes a journey from Ch'u-lu-to (Kuluta, Kullu) to Lo-hu-lo (Lahul), then goes on saying that "from there to the north, for over 2000 li, the road is very difficult, with cold wind and flying snow; thus one arrives in the kingdom of Mo-lo-so, or Mar-sa, synonymous with Mar-yul, a common name for Ladakh. Elsewhere, the text remarks that Mo-lo-so, also called San-po-ho borders with Suvarnagotra or Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold), identical with the Kingdom of Women (Strirajya.) According to Tucci, the Zan-zun kingdom, or at least its southern districts were known by this name by the 7th century Indians.

ζ. ^ the First Spreading of Buddhism was the one in Tibet proper

η. ^ Namgyal means victorious in several Tibetan languages.

θ. ^ The Leh district is placed in Zone V, while the Kargil district is placed in Zone IV on the earthquake hazard scale

ι. ^ The massifs to the north and east of the Nubra-Siachen line include the Apsarasas group (highest point 7,245 m, 23,770 ft), the Rimo group (highest point 7,385 m, 24,230 ft) and the Teram Kangri group (highest point 7,464 m, 24,488 ft), together with Mamostong Kangri (7,526 m, 24691 ft) and Singhi Kangri (7,751 m, 25,430 ft.)

ια. ^ Early in the 20th century the Chiru was seen in herds numbering in the thousands, surviving on remarkably sparse vegetation, they are very rare now.

ιβ. ^ The wool of Chiru must be pulled out by hand, a process done after the animal is killed.

ιγ. ^ Census was not carried out in Jammu and Kashmir in 1991 due to militancy

ιδ. ^ Sex ratio expressed as females per thousand males.

ιε. ^ Wazir-i Wazarat was ex officio Joint Commissioner with a British officer.

References

1. ^ Census 2001. Roof of the World. Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Leh (2001). Retrieved on 2006-08-23.
2. ^ Wiley, AS (2001). The ecology of low natural fertility in Ladakh. Department of Anthropology, Binghamton University (SUNY) 13902-6000, USA, PubMed publication. Retrieved on 2006-08-22.
3. ^ a b Rizvi, Janet (2001). Trans-Himalayan Caravans – Merchant Princes and Peasant Traders in Ladakh. Oxford India Paperbacks.
4. ^ a b c d e f g Rizvi, Janet (1996). Ladakh - Crossroads of High Asia. Oxford University Press.
5. ^ Kargil Council For Greater Ladakh. The Statesman, August 9, 2003 (2003). Retrieved on 2006-08-22.
6. ^ a b c d e f g h i Loram, Charlie [2000] (2004). Trekking in Ladakh, 2nd Edition (in English), Trailblazer Publications.
7. ^ a b Ray, John (2005). Ladakhi Histories - Local and Regional Perspectives (in English). Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
8. ^ a b Petech, Luciano (1977). The Kingdom of Ladakh c. 950–1842 A.D. (in English). Istituto Italiano per il media ed Estremo Oriente.
9. ^ Hazard profiles of Indian districts (PDF). United Nations Development Program (2003). Retrieved on 2006-08-22.
10. ^ Glaciers Melt Despite Cooler Temperatures; Heat Mortality and Adaptation; Hurricanes on the Rise. Cooler Heads Coalition (1999). Retrieved on 2006-08-22.
11. ^ Hazard profiles of Indian districts. United Nations Development Program (1999). Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
12. ^ Flora and fauna of Ladakh. India Travel Agents. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
13. ^ Official website of the Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Kargil. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
14. ^ India. Allrefer country study guide. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
15. ^ Shadows in the Kingdom of Light, Ladakh and Global Economy. www.paulkingsnorth.net. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
16. ^ a b Weare, Garry (2002). Trekking in the Indian Himalaya, 4th, Lonely Planet.
17. ^ Leh Ladakh Adventure tours and trekking tour packages website. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
18. ^ a b c State Development Report -- Jammu and Kashmir, Chapter 3A (PDF). Planning Commission of India (2001). Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
19. ^ Rural population. Education for all in India (1999). Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
20. ^ Norberg-Hodge, Helena (2000). Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh.. Oxford India Paperbacks.
21. ^ Masks: Reflections of Culture and Religion. Dolls of India. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
22. ^ Living Fabric: Weaving Among the Nomads of Ladakh Himalaya. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
23. ^ Indian festivals. Webzine Communications Ltd. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
24. ^ Ladakh culture. Jammu and Kashmir Tourism. Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
25. ^ District-specific Literates and Literacy Rates. Education for all website (2001). Retrieved on 2006-08-21.
26. ^ Education in Ladakh. Visit Ladakh Travel. Retrieved on 2006-08-22.

Further reading

* Allan, Nigel J. R. 1995 Karakorum Himalaya: Sourcebook for a Protected Area. IUCN. ISBN 969-8141-13-8 PDF
* Cunningham, Alexander. 1854. Ladak: Physical, Statistical, and Historical; with notices of the surrounding countries. Reprint: Sagar Publications, New Delhi. 1977.
* Drew, Federic. 1877. The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations. 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971.
* Francke, A. H. 1920, 1926. Antiquities of Indian Tibet. Vol. 1: Personal Narrative; Vol. 2: The Chronicles of Ladak and Minor Chronicles, texts and translations, with Notes and Maps. Reprint 1972. S. Chand & Co., New Delhi.
* Gordon, T. E. 1876. The Roof of the World: Being the Narrative of a Journey over the high plateau of Tibet to the Russian Frontier and the Oxus sources on Pamir. Edinburgh. Edmonston and Douglas. Reprint: Ch’eng Wen Publishing Company. Tapei. 1971.
* Harvey, Andrew. 1983. A Journey in Ladakh. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York.
* Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971.
* Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
* Norberg-Hodge, Helena. 2000. Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh. Rider Books, London.
* Peissel, Michel. 1984. The Ants' Gold: The Discovery of the Greek El Dorado in the Himalayas. Harvill Press, London.
* Rizvi, Janet. 1998. Ladakh, Crossroads of High Asia. Oxford University Press
* Trekking in Zanskar & Ladakh: Nubra Valley, Tso Moriri & Pangong Lake, Step By step Details of Every Trek: a Most Authentic & Colourful Trekkers' guide with maps 2001–2002 [4]